What is Bodhisattva?
A bodhisattva is “a being who is on the way to becoming enlightened,” constructed from the Sanskrit words bodhi (“awakening” or “enlightenment”) and sattva (“being”). The term bodhisattva meaning differs significantly across Buddhist traditions. In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has generated bodhicitta, a spontaneous wish and compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. In Theravada Buddhism and early Buddhist schools, bodhisattva refers to someone who has made a resolution to become a Buddha and has also received a confirmation or prediction from a living Buddha that this will come to pass.
The bodhisattva ideal represents a decisive shift from personal liberation to universal liberation. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or bodhi in order to compassionately help other individuals reach Buddhahood. This orientation distinguishes the bodhisattva from the arhat, whose path emphasizes individual awakening. Mahayana Buddhism (often also called Bodhisattvayāna, “Bodhisattva Vehicle”) is based principally upon the path of a bodhisattva.
Origins & Lineage
In pre-sectarian Buddhism, the term bodhisatta is used in the early texts to refer to Gautama Buddha in his previous lives and as a young man in his last life, when he was working towards liberation. The Buddha regularly uses the phrase “when I was an unawakened Bodhisatta” to describe his experiences before his attainment of awakening. Stories and teachings on the bodhisattva ideal are found in the various Jataka tale sources, which mainly focus on stories of the past lives of the Sakyamuni. These stories had certainly become an important part of popular Buddhism by the time of the carving of the Bharhut Stupa railings (c. 125–100 BCE).
The Mahayana reinterpretation of the bodhisattva ideal emerged around the turn of the first millennium CE. Mahayana Buddhism emerged in India around the turn of the first millennium, with evidence suggesting that the Mahayana approach was first promoted by monastics who lived within already established communities but followed new scriptures and understandings of Buddhist philosophy and practice. The earliest source for the doctrines of Avalokiteśvara is in the 25th chapter of the Lotus Sutra, one of the foundation texts of Mahayana Buddhism, which originated in India around the beginning of the first century AD.
Mahayana Buddhism generally understands the bodhisattva path as being open to everyone, and Mahayana Buddhists encourage all individuals to become bodhisattvas. The bodhisattva vow tradition dates back nearly two thousand years, with millions of practitioners formally committing to this path through ceremonial vows.
How It’s Practiced
The core practice of the bodhisattva path centers on taking the bodhisattva vow and cultivating the six paramitas (perfections). In Zen Buddhism, the bodhisattva vows often take the form of four vows: Beings are numberless; I vow to save them. Delusions are inexhausible; I vow to end them. Dharma gates are boundless; I vow to enter them. The Buddha Way is unattainable; I vow to attain it. These vows express impossible aspirations that orient practitioners toward boundless compassion rather than personal achievement.
The six paramitas are generosity, ethical conduct, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom. They are mentioned in Prajñapāramitā Sūtras, the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra) and many other texts. These beings are exemplified by important spiritual qualities such as the “four divine abodes” (brahmavihāras) of loving-kindness (maitrī), compassion (karuṇā), empathetic joy (muditā) and equanimity (upekṣā), as well as the various bodhisattva “perfections” (pāramitās).
Practitioners recognize archetypal bodhisattvas as models and sources of inspiration. Avalokiteshvara, known in Tibet as Chenrezig, in China as Guanyin, and in Japan as Kannon, is considered the embodiment of the abstract principle of compassion. Primordial bodhisattvas represent virtues such as compassion (Avaloketishvara), wisdom (Manjushri), and spiritual power (Vajrapani). Practitioners may pray to these figures, make offerings, and contemplate their qualities.
Bodhisattva Today
Contemporary practitioners encounter the bodhisattva ideal in diverse settings. Mahayana and Vajrayana centers worldwide offer formal bodhisattva vow ceremonies, typically preceded by teachings on bodhicitta (the awakened heart-mind). Many Zen centers incorporate the four bodhisattva vows into daily chanting practice. Tibetan Buddhist communities emphasize the cultivation of bodhicitta as foundational to all tantric practice.
The bodhisattva path appears in modern engaged Buddhism movements, which apply compassionate action to social justice, environmental activism, and contemplative care. Teachers like Thich Nhat Hanh and Pema Chödrön have brought bodhisattva teachings to Western audiences through retreat centers, published commentaries on classical texts like Shantideva’s Bodhicaryavatara (“Guide to the Bodhisattva’s Way of Life”), and accessible teachings on compassion practice.
In popular Buddhism, the bodhisattva concept manifests through devotional practices. Statues of Guanyin (Avalokiteshvara) adorn temples and home altars across East Asia. Practitioners may recite mantras such as Om Mani Padme Hum (associated with Avalokiteshvara) or invoke specific bodhisattvas for guidance.
Common Misconceptions
The bodhisattva ideal is frequently misunderstood as literal self-sacrifice or martyrdom. While Jataka tales contain dramatic stories of the Buddha-to-be offering his body, these function as mythic exemplars of non-attachment rather than prescriptions for self-harm. The path emphasizes sustainable compassion, not burnout.
Another misconception conflates all bodhisattvas with celestial, divine beings. In Mahayana Buddhism, the term “bodhisattva” can refer to both ordinary people who have taken the bodhisattva vow and strive to live by the bodhisattva ideals, and to primordial bodhisattvas who epitomize particular spiritual values. An everyday practitioner who takes the vow is considered a bodhisattva, though at an early stage of the path.
The notion that bodhisattvas “refuse” enlightenment is imprecise. Celestial bodhisattvas have intentionally chosen to delay becoming Buddhas in order to dedicate themselves to compassionately helping others, but this delay is motivated by compassionate activity, not rejection of awakening. The bodhisattva seeks the fullest possible enlightenment precisely to be of maximal benefit.
Finally, the bodhisattva path is not exclusive to Mahayana. In Theravada Buddhism, the bodhisattva is mainly seen as an exceptional and rare individual. Only a few select individuals are ultimately able to become bodhisattvas, such as Maitreya. The traditions differ on accessibility, not validity.
How to Begin
Beginners can explore the bodhisattva ideal through Shantideva’s Bodhicaryavatara (The Way of the Bodhisattva), an eighth-century text that remains the definitive guide to bodhisattva practice. Translations by the Padmakara Translation Group or Kate Crosby are accessible entry points.
Practical engagement begins with informal aspiration: reflecting on the intention to benefit others before meditation, work, or difficult conversations. Many teachers recommend starting with metta (loving-kindness) meditation to cultivate the emotional foundation for bodhicitta.
Formal entry requires taking the bodhisattva vow with a qualified teacher in the Mahayana or Vajrayana lineage. Most Zen, Tibetan, and some Chinese Buddhist centers offer vow ceremonies, often during retreats. Preliminary practices include taking refuge in the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha) and receiving teachings on the paramitas.
For philosophical grounding, consult the Prajnaparamita Sutras (“Perfection of Wisdom” literature), particularly the Heart Sutra and Diamond Sutra, which articulate the emptiness teachings essential to Mahayana bodhisattva practice. Commentary by contemporary teachers like the Dalai Lama, Chögyam Trungpa (Training the Mind and Cultivating Loving-Kindness), or Traleg Kyabgon provides contextual understanding.